Kashmir, often called paradise on earth, has a history as profound and complex as its breathtaking landscapes. Its origins are deeply intertwined with Sanatan Hindu traditions, its identity shaped by the revered Bhagwan Shiv & Maharshi Kashyap, its trajectory altered by invasions, forced conversions, and political upheavals. From its ancient Hindu roots to the abrogation of Article 370 and the recent Supreme Court mandate for elections, Kashmir’s story is one of resilience, tragedy, and hope for a renewed future. Kashmir’s name is derived from the Sanskrit term Kashyapa-Mira, meaning “the sea lake or mountain of Kashyap,” a reference to the sage Rishi Kashyap who, according to the Nilamata Purana, drained a vast lake called Satisara to create the land of Kashmir.
This ancient text establishes Kashmir as a sacred Hindu land, a place of pilgrimage dotted with holy sites dedicated to Lord Shiva, often referred to as Bhagwan Shiv’s playground. The region was a flourishing centre of Shaivism, a major Hindu tradition revering Shiv, with scholars like Utpaladeva, author of the Shiv-Stotravali, contributing to its spiritual richness.
The Rajatarangini, a 12thcentury historical chronicle by Kashmiri Brahman historian Kalhan, describes Kashmir as a divine abode, stating, “Kailash is the best place in the Tri-loka, Himalayas the best place in Kailash, and Kashmir the best place in Himalayas.” Kashmir was a hub of Sanatan Hindu Dharm and later Buddhist culture for centuries, ruled by 136 Hindu and Buddhist kings, starting with Gonanda I (3238–3188 BCE). Emperor Ashok propagated Buddhism in the 3rd century BCE, but Shaivism continued to thrive, with the Karkota Dynasty in the 9th century marking a golden era of Hindu culture. like the Martand Sun Mandir stood as architectural marvels, testifying to Kashmir’s deep Hindu roots. The region’s tutelary Devi, Sharada (a manifestation of Saraswati), further cements its Hindu identity, with prayers referring to her as Kashmirapur-vasini (she who resides in Kashmir). Adi Shankaracharya played a pivotal role in re-establishing Hindu dharma in Kashmir through his philosophical debates, particularly at the Sharada Peeth. He propagated Advaita Vedanta, unifying various Hindu sects by emphasizing the oneness of Brahman and contributing to the spiritual and intellectual resurgence of the region. He also composed hymns and devotional works, strengthening the Bhakti tradition.
The Hindu-Buddhist fabric of Kashmir began to unravel with the advent of Islamic rule in the 14th century. The transition was not merely a change of rulers but a systematic cultural and religious transformation. In 1320, Rinchan Shah, a Buddhist refugee-turnedking, converted to Islam, becoming the first Muslim ruler of Kashmir as Malik Sadr Ad-Din. However, the most devastating period came under Sultan Sikandar Shah Miri (1389–1413), known as Butshikan (idol breaker). His reign saw the destruction of countless Hindu temples, including the Martand Sun Temple, and forced conversions on a massive scale. Historian Ajit Bhattacharjee notes that Sikandar’s zeal to Islamize society led to thousands of Hindus fleeing or being massacred, with temples “felled to the ground” and defaced using fire when masonry proved too resilient. Subsequent rulers, including the Mughals (1586–1751) and the Afghan Durrani Empire (1751–1819), continued this repression.
The Mughals, followed by Afghan governors under Ahmed Shah Abdali, plundered temples, imposed heavy taxes, and committed atrocities against Hindus and even local Muslims. Victoria Schofield highlights that Afghan rule was particularly brutal, with Hindus sold into slavery and subjected to forced conversions. By the time the Sikh Empire under Ranjit Singh annexed Kashmir in 1819, ending four centuries of Muslim rule, the region’s demographic and cultural landscape had drastically shifted, with Hindus reduced to a minority. The 19th century saw Kashmir come under the Dogra dynasty, established by Raja Gulab Singh in 1846 through the Treaty of Amritsar with the British. Gulab Singh’s descendant, Maharaja Hari Singh, ascended the throne in 1925 and became the last ruling monarch of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir. At the time of India’s independence in 1947, Hari Singh faced a critical decision: to join India, Pakistan, or remain independent. Initially, he opted for independence, signing a standstill agreement with Pakistan to maintain trade and communication.
However, this decision was short-lived. In October 1947, Pakistani tribal militias, supported by the Pakistani army, invaded Kashmir, committing widespread atrocities, including massacres of Hindus and Sikhs. Faced with this aggression, Hari Singh sought India’s military assistance, signing the Instrument of Accession on October 26, 1947, thereby integrating Jammu and Kashmir into the Dominion of India. Indian troops were deployed, leading to the first IndoPakistan war, which ended with ceasefire in 1948, dividing the region along the Line of Control. Article 370 was introduced in 1949 as a temporary provision, granting Jammu and Kashmir special status, including autonomy in internal affairs and restricting non-residents from owning property. While intended to facilitate integration, this provision later became a tool for separatist narratives, alienating the region from the rest of India and complicating the return of displaced Kashmiri Hindus. The late 1980s saw a rise in Islamist militancy in Kashmir, fuelled by Pakistan-backed groups like the Jammu Kashmir Liberation Front (JKLF). The insurgency, initially framed as a separatist movement for independence, soon took on a starkly religious tone, targeting the Kashmiri Hindu Pandit community, the region’s indigenous Hindus.
On January 19, 1990, a dark chapter unfolded: all mosques across the valley blared messages declaring Pandits as kafirs (infidels), demanding they convert to Islam, leave, or be killed. Slogans like Ralive, Tsaliv ya Galive (convert, leave, or die) echoed through the Valley. They also stick bills saying leave your daughters and women here for us and leave. Targeted killings, such as the murder of Tika Lal Taploo, a prominent Hindu leader, in 1989, and the Gawkadal massacre in 1990, where security forces killed protesters, escalated tensions. By mid-1990, an estimated 90,000–100,000 Pandits—out of a population of 120,000–140,000— fled the Valley (Kashmiri Hindu organisations claim it of 400000), leaving behind homes, businesses, and a millennia-old heritage. The exodus was marked by horrific violence, with some accounts, like those in The Kashmir Files film, depicting the brutality faced by Hindus, including forced conversions and massacres.
This ethnic cleansing reduced the Hindu Pandit population in the Valley to a mere 3,445 people by 2010, as per the Jammu and Kashmir government. On August 5, 2019, the Indian government, under Prime Minister Narendra Modi, abrogated Article 370 and 35A, fully integrating Jammu and Kashmir into the Indian Union by reorganizing it into two Union Territories: Jammu and Kashmir, and Ladakh.
This historic move aimed to ensure equal rights for all citizens, including minorities and women, and to create conditions for the return of Kashmiri Hindu Pandits. The abrogation was widely supported by the Pandit diaspora, who saw it as a step toward reclaiming their homeland. Post-abrogation, the Valley has seen a significant decline in militancy, with tourist numbers soaring—7,00,000 visitors in the first five months of 2022 alone, signalling a return of prosperity. Infrastructure development, economic opportunities, and improved security have transformed the region, allowing residents to live without the constant fear of violence.
However, the Hindu Pandits who returned under rehabilitation plans continue to face challenges, living in guarded camps and unable to practice their religion freely due to lingering threats from Islamic extremists. When I visited Kashmir in May 2023, have spoken to several locals and sensed that they were happy with the LG rule, not willing to have an elected government. They are believing that only three political families—the Abdullahs, Muftis, and Gandhis—have benefited from the region’s governance, perpetuating corruption and dynastic rule. The elections, the first since the abrogation of Article 370, saw a shift as voters sought to move beyond the shadows of violence and dynastic politics, yet scepticism about electoral processes persists. On December 11, 2023, the Supreme Court of India upheld the abrogation of Article 370 and directed the Election Commission to conduct Assembly elections in Jammu and Kashmir by September 30, 2024.
The court’s ruling aimed to restore democratic processes, but its repercussions are complex. The terror activities are on the rise post elections in the valley. The otherwise calm valley post abrogation of article 370, have seen rise in violence post Omar Abdulla government sworn in. The killing of migrant workers, attack on local police, security forces and recent massacre of 26 Hindu tourists in Pahalgam are evident of the rightness of the fear shown by the locals and the rest of the country that elections will bring the militancy again to the valley has proven right.
The courts in India are to balance the Executives and Legislature but overstepping the government actions are resulting in harmful results like doing elections in Kashmir, the centre’s rule in Kashmir have proven good for the people of the union territory for now. Kashmir’s journey from Rishi Kashyap’s sacred land to a modern Union Territory is a testament to its enduring spirit. Its Hindu origins, marked by Shaivism and the legacy of sages, were nearly erased by centuries of invasions and forced conversions, yet the region’s cultural heritage persists in its ancient place names and sacred sites.
Maharaja Hari Singh’s decision to accede to India ensured Kashmir’s place in Bharat, but Article 370 and the rise of Islamism led to decades of strife, culminating in the tragic exodus of Kashmiri Hindus. The abrogation of Article 370 has ushered in a new era of prosperity, but challenges remain, from local disillusionment with elections to the Hindu Pandits’ struggle for justice. As democracy finds its voice in the Valley, Kashmir stands at a crossroads, with the potential to reclaim its ancient glory as a land of harmony and spiritual richness.
Gopal Goswami Ph. D is a Researcher, Columnist and Social Worker
